Reference
Techniques
فنونEach technique is documented as a working sequence, with the tools it needs, the variations recorded by region, and the conservation problems it creates.
Knotted pile weavingقالیبافی
Pile is built by tying short lengths of yarn around warp pairs, row by row, then beating down and trimming the surface.
Process
- 1Warp the loom to the planned density and width.
- 2Weave a flatwoven starting band to lock the ends.
- 3Tie each knot row — symmetric or asymmetric — following the design.
- 4Insert wefts and beat the row down with the comb.
- 5Trim the pile progressively to an even height.
- 6Finish the far end, cut the piece down and wash it.
Variations
Asymmetric (Persian) knotting allows finer curvilinear drawing; symmetric knotting is more usual in tribal and village work.
Conservation
Rotate to even out wear, avoid folding along a single line, and secure selvedges before they unravel.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Wood inlay (khatam)خاتم
Fine rods of contrasting wood, bone and metal are bundled into a star unit, glued, sliced into thin sheets and applied to a carcase.
Process
- 1Cut and file rods to a precise triangular section.
- 2Bundle rods into a six-pointed star unit and bind tightly.
- 3Glue bundles into larger blocks and cure under pressure.
- 4Slice the block into sheets under one millimetre thick.
- 5Lay sheets onto the prepared carcase and press until dry.
- 6Scrape level, then polish and finish.
Variations
Unit density varies by workshop; finer work packs visibly more elements into the same area.
Conservation
Keep humidity steady. Lifted sheets should be re-adhered by a conservator, not re-glued in place.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Chisel engraving (qalam-zani)قلمزنی
A pitch-filled metal vessel is worked from the outside with small chisels struck by hammer, raising line and texture rather than removing much metal.
Process
- 1Raise or spin the vessel and anneal it.
- 2Fill the interior with pitch for support.
- 3Transfer the design onto the surface.
- 4Outline with a tracing chisel, then work grounds and textures.
- 5Melt out the pitch and clean the piece.
- 6Patinate or polish to finish.
Variations
Grounds, tools and textures vary between workshops. Relief depth alone cannot distinguish hand work from stamped or cast manufacture.
Conservation
Avoid abrasive polish, which rounds chisel edges and flattens the design.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Tazhib illuminationتذهیب
Gold and fine pigment are applied in disciplined ornamental bands and grounds around text or painting.
Process
- 1Size and burnish the paper.
- 2Rule the frame and lay out the ornamental scheme.
- 3Apply gold, then burnish it.
- 4Paint pigment grounds around the gold.
- 5Draw the fine outlining last.
Variations
Timurid Herat schemes are denser and more regular than later Qajar work.
Conservation
Paper and gold both suffer from light and humidity swings; display in low, filtered light only.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Underglaze paintingنقاشی زیرلعابی
Colour is applied beneath a glaze layer; body preparation and firing sequences vary between workshops and ceramic systems.
Process
- 1Biscuit-fire the formed body.
- 2Paint the design in metal-oxide pigments.
- 3Dip or pour the transparent glaze.
- 4Glost-fire to maturity.
Variations
Haft-rang overglaze work fires a broader palette at lower temperature; cuerda seca separates colours with a greasy resist line.
Conservation
Crazed glazes admit salts; wash only under specialist advice.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Supplementary weft brocadeزریبافی
Additional pattern wefts complement a ground weave. Termeh includes different weave structures and should not automatically be identified as supplementary-weft brocade.
Process
- 1Dress the loom with a fine warp.
- 2Weave the ground cloth.
- 3Introduce supplementary wefts on the patterned picks.
- 4Finish the cloth without cutting structural or pattern threads indiscriminately.
Variations
Drawloom and jacquard systems organise pattern selection differently; colour count alone does not identify historical hand production.
Conservation
Store rolled rather than folded; floats abrade quickly along a fold.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Weft-faced flatweavingگلیمبافی
Weft-faced flatweaving is a working process used in kilim, zilu. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Dress the loom
- 2Pass coloured wefts over and under the warp
- 3Beat wefts close and finish the edges
Variations
Slit, interlocked and dovetailed wefts create different boundaries.
Conservation
Avoid uneven stretching and hard creases.
Warp-faced strip weavingجاجیمبافی
Warp-faced strip weaving is a working process used in jajim. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Set coloured warp bands
- 2Weave narrow strips
- 3Join strips along the long edges
Variations
Supplementary wefts may create small accent figures.
Conservation
Support joining seams and avoid tension.
Textile block printingقلمکارسازی
Textile block printing is a working process used in qalamkar. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Prepare and register cloth
- 2Print outlines and fill colours
- 3Fix and wash according to colour system
Variations
Mordant and pigment processes are not identical; assess each workshop method.
Conservation
Test dyes before cleaning.
Surface embroideryسوزندوزی سطحی
Surface embroidery is a working process used in pateh. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Mark the cloth
- 2Build dense stitched outlines and fills
- 3Finish the reverse
Variations
Stitch vocabulary and colour schemes vary by community.
Conservation
Do not stretch or brush embroidered surfaces.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Metal-thread couchingسرمهدوزی
Metal-thread couching is a working process used in sermeh-duzi. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Draw the motif
- 2Lay metal thread along the design
- 3Catch it in place with small stitches
Variations
Solid and wrapped metal threads behave differently.
Conservation
Tarnished threads should not be polished on cloth.
Wet feltingنمدمالی
Wet felting is a working process used in namad. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Lay out wool
- 2Wet and agitate fibres
- 3Roll, rinse and dry
Variations
Some work integrates coloured wool inlays or separately felted pieces.
Conservation
Dry thoroughly and inspect for moth damage.
Giveh upper stitchingگیوهبافی
Giveh upper stitching is a working process used in giveh. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Work breathable upper
- 2Shape the upper
- 3Attach it to the sole
Variations
Sole construction varies between regions and makers.
Conservation
Dry slowly after use; avoid machine washing.
Enamelling on metalمیناکاری
Enamelling on metal is a working process used in minakari. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Prepare metal
- 2Apply ground coat
- 3Paint or apply enamel
- 4Fire and cool
Variations
Do not confuse with enamel-paint on pottery.
Conservation
Do not abrade or soak damaged enamel.
Wire filigreeملیلهکاری
Wire filigree is a working process used in malileh. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Draw thin metal wire
- 2Bend and arrange motifs
- 3Join and clean the structure
Variations
Openwork and applied wirework have different structural supports.
Conservation
Fragile joins and tarnish require specialist care.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Cut-tile mosaicکاشی معرق
Cut-tile mosaic is a working process used in moarraq-tile. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Cut glazed tiles by colour
- 2Assemble fragments face-down
- 3Back and install sections
Variations
Mosaic is assembled from separate pieces, unlike painted seven-colour tile.
Conservation
Water behind the wall destabilises mortar.
Ceramic overglaze enamellingلعاب رویی
Ceramic overglaze enamelling is a working process used in minai-ware. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Glaze and fire the ware
- 2Paint enamel over the glaze
- 3Fire again at lower heat
Variations
Mina’i ware is a historical ceramic category, not metal minakari.
Conservation
Do not wash flaking surface decoration.
Wheel throwingچرخ سفالگری
Wheel throwing is a working process used in lalejin-pottery. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Centre prepared clay
- 2Pull and shape the vessel
- 3Dry, trim and fire
Variations
Moulding and hand-building can coexist with throwing in a pottery town.
Conservation
Inspect for cracks and unstable glazes.
Geometric lattice joineryگرهچینی
Geometric lattice joinery is a working process used in gereh-chini. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Lay out a geometric grid
- 2Cut matching wooden pieces
- 3Fit into a stable frame
Variations
Some window screens incorporate coloured glass.
Conservation
Avoid pressure on joints and glazing.
Wood relief carvingمنبتکاری
Wood relief carving is a working process used in monabbat. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Draw design
- 2Remove surrounding wood
- 3Refine raised forms
Variations
Relief depth and surface finish vary widely.
Conservation
Do not apply furniture oil to historic carving.
Paper marblingابر و باد
Paper marbling is a working process used in abr-o-bad. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Prepare colour bath
- 2Float and move colours
- 3Lift pattern onto a sheet
Variations
Bath chemistry and tools vary by workshop.
Conservation
Keep sheets flat, dark and dry.
Painted lacquer finishingنقاشی لاکی
Painted lacquer finishing is a working process used in lacquer-painting. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Prepare support
- 2Paint composition
- 3Apply protective finishing layers
Variations
Iranian pen boxes often combine painting and lacquered coating.
Conservation
Avoid sunlight, heat and solvents.
Turquoise fragment inlayفیروزهکوبی
Turquoise fragment inlay is a working process used in firuzeh-kubi. Sequence and materials vary between workshops; this entry is an educational overview, not an authentication method.
Process
- 1Prepare the metal surface
- 2Set closely fitted fragments in mastic
- 3Grind the set surface level and polish it
Variations
Stone and setting materials vary; colour does not establish origin.
Conservation
Avoid detergent and impact.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Asymmetric (Persian) knotگره فارسی
A pile knot wrapped around one warp and passed under the next, giving fine, sloping pile.
Process
- 1Loop yarn around one warp
- 2Pass under the neighbouring warp
- 3Cut and beat down the row
Variations
Can open left or right; used in many Iranian city weaves.
Conservation
Handle fine pile gently; do not beat hard.
Symmetric (Turkish) knotگره ترکی
A pile knot wrapped around two warps, common in north-western Iran such as Tabriz and Heriz.
Process
- 1Wrap yarn over both warps
- 2Pull ends up between them
- 3Cut and beat
Variations
Tabriz weavers often use a hook knife for speed.
Conservation
Strong structure; avoid wet cleaning without drying fully.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Natural dyeingرنگرزی طبیعی
Colouring fibre with natural-source colourants; vat and mordant systems require different preparation.
Process
- 1Prepare the fibre
- 2Prepare the appropriate vat or mordant system
- 3Dye, fix and rinse for that recipe
Variations
Abrash describes colour variation, not proof of natural dyeing, age or Iranian origin.
Conservation
Do not experiment with wet cleaning on unstable or historical textiles; seek object-specific conservation advice.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Drawloom weavingنقشهبندی دستگاه
A loom with a pattern harness that lets a helper lift warps for complex repeats such as termeh and zari.
Process
- 1Set the pattern harness
- 2Lift pattern warps for each pick
- 3Weave the ground and pattern wefts
Variations
Termeh, zari-bafi and velvet all rely on pattern-lifting looms.
Conservation
Fold textiles loosely and never iron metal-thread areas.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Cut-pile velvetمخملبافی
Weaving a pile over rods and cutting it to make velvet; Kashan velvets were famous.
Process
- 1Weave the pile warp over rods
- 2Cut the loops
- 3Brush the pile
Variations
Voided and cut-and-uncut velvets create patterns.
Conservation
Never press pile flat; store rolled.
Chain stitchزنجیرهدوزی
A looped stitch used for outline and fill in Rasht work and other embroidery.
Process
- 1Bring the thread up
- 2Loop and catch it
- 3Repeat along the line
Variations
A hook (tambour) can speed up the work.
Conservation
Support the textile when hanging.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Felt appliqué and inlayوصلهدوزی
Setting pieces of coloured felt into or onto a ground; used in Rasht work.
Process
- 1Cut coloured pieces
- 2Inlay or sew them to the ground
- 3Outline with chain stitch
Variations
Rasht work combines inlay with embroidery.
Conservation
Protect from moths and folding.
Repoussé and chasingبرجستهکاری
Raising metal from the back and refining it from the front with punches.
Process
- 1Fix sheet on pitch
- 2Push out forms from the back
- 3Chase details from the front
Variations
Often combined with engraving on brass and copper.
Conservation
Avoid aggressive polishing that wears high points.
Metal inlay (koftgari)کوفتگری
Hammering gold or silver wire into a cross-hatched steel or brass surface.
Process
- 1Cross-hatch the ground
- 2Lay precious wire
- 3Hammer and burnish
Variations
True inlay sits in cut channels; overlay sits on a hatched surface.
Conservation
Keep dry to prevent rust on steel grounds.
Pierced steelworkمشبککاری فولاد
Cutting, chiselling and piercing steel into plaques, standards and finials.
Process
- 1Draw the design
- 2Pierce and cut
- 3File and finish
Variations
Safavid steel standards are among the best known pieces.
Conservation
Keep in stable dry storage; do not oil historical surfaces or coatings without conservation advice.
Lustre firingزرینفام
A metallic sheen made by painting metal compounds over glaze and firing in a smoky kiln.
Process
- 1Glaze and fire the ware
- 2Paint lustre
- 3Refire in a reducing atmosphere
Variations
Kashan was a leading lustre centre in the 12th–13th centuries.
Conservation
Do not polish lustre; it wears off.
Tools
Materials
Used in
Glass blowingشیشهگری فوتی
Gathering molten glass on a pipe and inflating it into vessels.
Process
- 1Gather glass
- 2Blow and shape
- 3Anneal slowly
Variations
Hand-blown Iranian glass often has bubbles and a greenish or blue tint.
Conservation
Avoid sudden temperature changes.
Carved plaster (gach-bori)گچبری
Carving wet gypsum plaster into relief panels, niches and muqarnas.
Process
- 1Apply plaster
- 2Transfer design
- 3Carve before full set
Variations
Mirror work and paint are sometimes added.
Conservation
Keep dry; repairs need matching plaster.
Stone turning and carvingسنگتراشی
Shaping soapstone and other stones on lathes and by hand into pots and vessels.
Process
- 1Cut a block
- 2Turn or carve the form
- 3Smooth and polish
Variations
Mashhad soapstone cookware is season-treated before first use.
Conservation
Avoid thermal shock and acid.
Instrument bowl carvingکاسهتراشی ساز
Carving a hollow wooden instrument body; a tar is commonly carved, while setar bowls may also be assembled from shaped ribs.
Process
- 1Select and rough out suitable wood
- 2Hollow a carved bowl or prepare ribs for an assembled one
- 3Adjust wall thickness and assemble with other instrument parts
Variations
Carved and rib-built bodies are different construction methods; sound depends on the whole instrument, not thickness alone.
Conservation
Keep in a supported case away from heat and sudden humidity changes.
Leather case bindingجلدسازی چرمی
Sewing gatherings and covering them in tooled and gilded leather with a flap (lesan).
Process
- 1Sew the text block
- 2Cover the boards
- 3Tool and gild
Variations
Stamped, cut-work and lacquer bindings are other options.
Conservation
Store upright but supported; keep leather dry.