Reference
Materials
موادWhat Iranian crafts are made from, how it is prepared, how it behaves over time, and how it is best kept.
Woolپشم
A protein fibre used for Iranian pile weaving, flatweaves and felt. Fleece, yarn preparation and construction vary; the finished surface does not identify a breed or origin.
- Origin
- Highland and pastoral flocks across Fars, Khorasan, Kurdistan and Azerbaijan.
- Properties
- Elastic and resilient
- High dye affinity
- Naturally soil-resistant
- Variable staple length by region
- Preparation
- Shorn, sorted by staple, washed, carded, then hand- or wheel-spun; often plied before dyeing.
- Preservation
- Keep dry and ventilated, avoid prolonged direct light, and inspect regularly for insect activity.
Silkابریشم
Reeled filament used for fine pile, highlights, termeh wefts and brocade grounds.
- Origin
- Historically Gilan and Mazandaran sericulture; also imported.
- Properties
- Very high tensile strength
- Fine gauge allows dense knotting
- Strong lustre
- Light-sensitive dyes
- Preparation
- Cocoons are reeled, degummed, thrown into thread, then dyed in small lots.
- Preservation
- Highly light-sensitive. Store flat, in the dark, interleaved with unbuffered tissue.
Cottonپنبه
Used for carpet foundations, block-printed cloth and embroidery grounds.
- Origin
- Cultivated across the central plateau and Khorasan.
- Properties
- Dimensionally stable
- Low elasticity
- Takes mordant dyes well
- Inexpensive relative to silk
- Preparation
- Ginned, carded and spun; foundation yarns are usually plied for strength.
- Preservation
- Stable if dry; vulnerable to mould and to acidic storage materials.
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Walnut woodچوب گردو
Timber used in some carved and inlaid objects; a decorative veneer does not identify every wood in the support.
- Origin
- Workshop timber may be locally supplied or traded; grain alone cannot identify a growing region.
- Properties
- Grain varies with cut
- Colour affected by finish
- Can hold fine carved detail
- Moves with moisture changes
- Preparation
- Air-dried for long periods, then sawn and thicknessed before veneering or inlay.
- Preservation
- Maintain steady humidity; sudden change lifts inlay and opens joints.
Brassبرنج
A copper-zinc alloy favoured for engraved vessels and trays because it holds a crisp chisel line.
- Origin
- Worked from sheet stock in Isfahan, Tabriz and Zanjan workshops.
- Properties
- Takes fine engraving
- Bright warm tone
- Work-hardens under hammering
- Polishes to high shine
- Preparation
- Bodies may be raised, spun, cast or assembled; engraving support and annealing depend on the alloy and method.
- Preservation
- Handle with clean gloves; avoid abrasive polishes that soften engraved detail.
Copperمس
Softer than brass, traditional for tinned cooking vessels and deeply raised forms.
- Origin
- Supplied through mining, trade and recycling; metal source is not the same as a vessel's place of manufacture.
- Properties
- Very malleable
- Excellent heat conduction
- Develops surface corrosion
- Some cooking vessels have tin linings
- Preparation
- Sheet may be raised and planished with repeated annealing; lining and finishing vary by intended use.
- Preservation
- Stabilise patina rather than stripping it; avoid damp storage.
Clay (earthenware)خاک رس
Earthenware clay underlies Persian village pottery, slip-painted wares and most architectural tile; quartz-rich stonepaste (frit) bodies are recorded separately.
- Origin
- Local beds near Kashan, Meybod, Hamadan and Lalejin.
- Properties
- Plastic when wet
- Fires red to buff
- Takes slips and glazes
- Porous unless glazed
- Preparation
- Weathered, levigated, wedged, then thrown or pressed and biscuit-fired.
- Preservation
- Support weight fully when handling; glaze crazing traps soluble salts.
Natural dyesرنگهای گیاهی
Madder, indigo, weld, walnut husk, pomegranate rind and cochineal give the palette of older Iranian textiles.
- Origin
- Cultivated and gathered across Iran; cochineal and indigo also traded.
- Properties
- Plant and animal sources
- Some require mordants
- Abrash is not proof of dye source
- Varying lightfastness
- Preparation
- Preparation depends on fibre and dye system; indigo uses a vat process while many other natural dyes use mordants.
- Preservation
- Limit light exposure; colour and abrash alone cannot identify dye source or date a textile.
Camel boneاستخوان
Cut into fine rods to supply the white elements of khatam inlay.
- Origin
- By-product of pastoral herding.
- Properties
- Dense and pale
- Takes a high polish
- Brittle in thin sections
- Yellows slowly with age
- Preparation
- Degreased, bleached, then sawn and filed into triangular rods.
- Preservation
- Avoid solvents and heat, both of which crack thin bone elements.
Metal threadنخ فلزی
Fine metallic strip or wrapped thread couched onto a textile ground for raised, reflective embroidery.
- Origin
- Made from metal strip or wire in specialist workshops; historical composition varies.
- Properties
- Reflective
- Can tarnish
- Sensitive to abrasion
- Preparation
- Flatten or wrap metal around a thread core; lay and stitch it over a design.
- Preservation
- Support flat; avoid polishing, abrasion and humid storage.
Leatherچرم
Flexible material used for some soles, bindings and structural components.
- Origin
- Animal hide prepared by tanning; type varies by workshop and object.
- Properties
- Flexible
- Abrasion resistant
- Humidity sensitive
- Preparation
- Tan, cut and stitch pieces according to use.
- Preservation
- Avoid wetting, heat and generic leather dressings on historic objects.
Silverنقره
Ductile metal drawn into wire for some filigree work.
- Origin
- Precious metal supplied as wire or sheet; composition and fineness vary.
- Properties
- Ductile
- Tarnishes
- Can be soldered
- Preparation
- Draw, twist, form and join wire elements.
- Preservation
- Avoid aggressive polishing of fragile filigree and old patina.
Paperکاغذ
Absorbent sheet used in marbling, manuscript arts and painted lacquer objects.
- Origin
- Handmade or machine-made paper; individual fibres need identification.
- Properties
- Absorbent
- Light-sensitive
- Humidity-sensitive
- Preparation
- Size and burnish as needed before colour application.
- Preservation
- Store flat in archival enclosures; limit light and avoid moisture.
Lacquer coatingلاک
Layered protective and decorative coatings used on some painted paper and wood objects; recipes vary.
- Origin
- Regional resins, oils and binders vary by period and workshop.
- Properties
- Glossy finish
- Brittleness varies
- Can be solvent-sensitive
- Preparation
- Apply thin coats and dry or cure before further painting and polishing.
- Preservation
- Do not test solvents or wax without a conservator.
Turquoiseفیروزه
Blue-green stone fragments set into metalwork for decorative contrast.
- Origin
- Iranian and other sources; visual inspection alone cannot establish a mine of origin.
- Properties
- Porous
- Sensitive to chemicals
- Variable colour
- Preparation
- Select small fragments and fit them closely into a prepared metal surface.
- Preservation
- Avoid cleaners, immersion and impact.
Gold leafورق طلا
Very thin beaten gold applied to paper, lacquer, wood and plaster for illumination and gilding.
- Origin
- Beaten from gold by specialist suppliers; purity varies.
- Properties
- Very thin and fragile
- Does not tarnish when pure
- Needs an adhesive ground
- Preparation
- Lay leaf over a size or ground, then burnish or tool.
- Preservation
- Do not rub gilded surfaces; loose flakes need a conservator.
Shell goldطلای حلشده
Powdered gold mixed with a binder and applied with a brush, used for fine illumination lines.
- Origin
- Ground gold combined with gum; recipes vary.
- Properties
- Brushable
- Can be burnished
- Expensive
- Preparation
- Grind, mix with binder and paint thin lines or fills.
- Preservation
- Handle pages by the margins and keep them flat.
Lapis lazuli (ultramarine)لاجورد
A deep blue stone ground and refined into the ultramarine used in manuscript painting and illumination.
- Origin
- Historically traded from Badakhshan; modern pigments may be synthetic.
- Properties
- Intense blue
- Stable to light
- Costly when natural
- Preparation
- Grind and purify the stone, then bind with gum.
- Preservation
- Keep painted pages away from moisture and rubbing.
Bone and ivory substitutesجایگزین عاج
Bone and modern substitutes used in inlay where ivory was once used; ivory itself is restricted.
- Origin
- Camel bone is common today; old pieces may contain ivory.
- Properties
- Pale and fine-grained
- Can yellow
- Legal limits apply to ivory
- Preparation
- Cut into thin strips or tiny elements for inlay.
- Preservation
- Ivory trade is regulated: check local law before buying antiques.
Vitreous enamelلعاب مینا
Powdered coloured glass fused onto metal at high heat.
- Origin
- Prepared from glass frits and metal oxides.
- Properties
- Glassy
- Brittle when struck
- Colour fixed by firing
- Preparation
- Grind, apply wet, then fire in stages.
- Preservation
- Protect from knocks; chipped enamel cannot be simply touched up.
Stonepaste (frit)خمیر سنگ
A white ceramic body made of ground quartz, glass frit and a little clay, used for fine glazed wares.
- Origin
- Developed in medieval Iran and neighbouring lands.
- Properties
- White
- Hard but brittle
- Takes bright glazes
- Preparation
- Mix quartz, frit and clay, shape and fire.
- Preservation
- Old frit wares may be fragile; handle with two hands.
Opaque glazeلعاب مات
White opaque glaze used to hide coloured bodies and provide a ground for painting.
- Origin
- Recipes vary; tin and other opacifiers were used.
- Properties
- Opaque
- Smooth
- Can craze
- Preparation
- Apply over the body before painting and firing.
- Preservation
- Do not soak crazed or flaking glaze.
Cobalt blueکبالت
The blue colourant of underglaze painting; Kashan was once associated with a cobalt source.
- Origin
- Mineral cobalt ores; modern supplies are refined.
- Properties
- Strong blue
- Fires reliably
- Can blur if overloaded
- Preparation
- Grind and paint onto the body before glazing.
- Preservation
- Stable once fired.
Gypsum plaster (gach)گچ
Fast-setting plaster carved while soft into wall and ceiling ornament.
- Origin
- Burnt gypsum, widely available across Iran.
- Properties
- Sets quickly
- Carvable
- Weakened by damp
- Preparation
- Mix, apply to the wall and carve before it fully hardens.
- Preservation
- Keep dry; water damage causes loss.
Marble and soapstoneسنگ مرمر و صابونی
Stones carved into vessels, grave markers and architectural parts; soapstone is common for Mashhad cookware.
- Origin
- Local quarries, including soapstone near Mashhad.
- Properties
- Heavy
- Carvable
- Stains easily
- Preparation
- Quarry, block out and carve with chisels and abrasives.
- Preservation
- Avoid acid cleaners on marble.
Mulberry woodچوب توت
A dense wood valued for the bowls of the tar and setar.
- Origin
- Grown across Iran; seasoned before use.
- Properties
- Dense
- Resonant
- Stable when seasoned
- Preparation
- Season, rough-carve and hollow the bowl.
- Preservation
- Keep instruments away from heat and sudden humidity change.
Membrane (skin)پوست
Thin skin stretched over the bowl of some instruments, such as the tar.
- Origin
- Lamb or fish skin prepared by makers.
- Properties
- Thin
- Tension-sensitive
- Humidity-sensitive
- Preparation
- Soak, stretch and glue over the frame.
- Preservation
- Avoid heat and sharp changes in humidity.
Palm leaf and reedبرگ خرما و نی
Leaf strips and reeds used for basketry, mats and trays in the south of Iran.
- Origin
- Date palms and reed beds in the south.
- Properties
- Light
- Flexible when wet
- Can go brittle
- Preparation
- Split, soak and plait or coil.
- Preservation
- Avoid damp and pests; store flat.
Goat hairموی بز
Strong dark fibre used in tent cloth, ropes and some flatweaves.
- Origin
- Nomadic herds.
- Properties
- Strong
- Water-shedding
- Coarse
- Preparation
- Spin tightly and weave on ground looms.
- Preservation
- Store dry and watch for moths.
Kork woolکرک
Soft under-fleece from the neck and shoulders, prized for fine carpets such as some Kashan and Nain pieces.
- Origin
- Selected from sheep fleeces.
- Properties
- Soft
- Lustrous
- Takes dye well
- Preparation
- Sort, clean and spin finely.
- Preservation
- Vacuum gently and avoid moth damage.
Madderروناس
A plant root giving reds, pinks and browns in carpet and textile dyeing.
- Origin
- Rubia plants grown in Iran for centuries.
- Properties
- Warm reds
- Needs a mordant
- Good lightfastness
- Preparation
- Dry and grind the root; dye mordanted fibre in a hot bath.
- Preservation
- Reds may bleed if washed carelessly; test first.